SCIENCE: Heavy metal pollution and human biotoxic effects

Contributed by Marcus O'Garvey

Article in scientific journal by Duruibe, J.O., Ogwuegbu, M.O. and Egwurugwu, J.N. (2007) International Journal of Physical Sciences, Vol 2(5), pp 112-118.

Abstract
Some heavy metals have bio-importance as trace elements but, the biotoxic effects of many of them in human biochemistry are of great concern. Hence, there is the need for proper understanding of the conditions, such as the concentrations and oxidation states, which make them harmful, and how biotoxicity occurs. It is also important to know their sources, leaching processes, chemical conversions and their modes of deposition to pollute the environment, which essentially supports lives. Literature sources point to the fact that these metals are released into the environment by both natural and anthropogenic sources, especially mining and industrial activities, and automobile exhausts (for lead). They leach into underground waters, moving along water pathways and eventually depositing in the aquifer, or are washed away by run-off into surface waters thereby resulting in water and subsequently soil pollution. Poisoning and toxicity in animals occur frequently through exchange and co-ordination mechanisms. When ingested, they combine with the body's biomolecules, like proteins and enzymes to form stable biotoxic compounds, thereby mutilating their structures and hindering them from the bioreactions of their functions. This paper reviews certain heavy metals and their biotoxic effects on man and the mechanisms of their biochemical activities.

Extracts
The term "heavy metals" refers to any metallic element that has a relatively high density and is toxic or poisonous even at low concentration (Lenntech, 2004). "Heavy metals" is a general collective term, which applies to the group of metals and metalloids with atomic density greater than 4 g/cm3, or 5 times or more, greater than water (Huton and Symon, 1986; Battarbee et al., 1988; Nriagu and Pacyna 1988; Nriagu, 1989; Garbarino et al., 1995, Hawkes, 1997). However, being a heavy metal has little to do with density but concerns chemical properties. Heavy metals include lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), zinc (Zn), mercury (Hg), arsenic (As), silver (Ag) chromium (Cr), copper (Cu) iron (Fe), and the platinum group elements. Environment is defined as the totality of circumstances surrounding an organism or group of organisms especially, the combination of external physical conditions that affect and influence the growth, development and survival of organisms (Farlex, 2005). It consists of the flora, fauna and the abiotic, and includes the aquatic, terrestrial and atmospheric habitats. The environment is considered in terms of the most tangible aspects like air, water and food, and the less tangible, though no less important, the communities we live in (Gore, 1997). A pollutant is any substance in the environment, which causes objectionable effects, impairing the welfare of the environment, reducing the quality of life and may eventually cause death. Such a substance has to be present in the environment beyond a set or tolerance limit, which could be either a desirable or acceptable limit. Hence, environmental pollution is the presence of a pollutant in the environment; air, water and soil, which may be poisonous or toxic and will cause harm to living things in the polluted environment.

Heavy metals occur as natural constituents of the earth crust, and are persistent environmental contaminants since they cannot be degraded or destroyed. To a small extent, they enter the body system through food, air, and water and bio-accumulate over a period of time (Lenntech, 2004; UNEP/GPA, 2004). ...

OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE

Heavy metal exposure occurs significantly by occupational exposure. Workers of the mining and production of cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury, gold and silver have been reported to be thus exposed; also inhabitants around industrial sites of heavy metal mining and processing, are exposed through air by suspended particulate matters (SPM) (Heyer, 1985; USDOL, 2004; Ogwuegbu and Muhanga, 2005). ...

HEAVY METAL POISONING AND BIOTOXICITY

The biotoxic effects of heavy metals refer to the harmful effects of heavy metals to the body when consumed above the bio-recommended limits. Although individual metals exhibit specific signs of their toxicity, the following have been reported as general signs associated with cadmium, lead, arsenic, mercury, zinc, copper and aluminium poisoning: gastrointestinal (GI) disorders, diarrhoea, stomatitis, tremor, hemoglobinuria causing a rust-red colour to stool, ataxia, paralysis, vomiting and convulsion, depression, and pneumonia when volatile vapours and fumes are inhaled (McCluggage, 1991). The nature of effects could be toxic (acute, chronic or sub-chronic), neurotoxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic or teratogenic.

Cadmium is toxic at extremely low levels. In humans, long term exposure results in renal dysfunction, characterized by tubular proteinuria. High exposure can lead to obstructive lung disease, cadmium pneumonitis, resulting from inhaled dusts and fumes. It is characterized by chest pain, cough with foamy and bloody sputum, and death of the lining of the lung tissues because of excessive accumulation of watery fluids. Cadmium is also associated with bone defects, viz; osteomalacia, osteoporosis and spontaneous fractures, increased blood pressure and myocardic dysfunctions. Depending on the severity of exposure, the symptoms of effects include nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, dyspnea and muscular weakness. Severe exposure may result in pulmonary odema and death. Pulmonary effects (emphysema, bronchiolitis and alveolitis) and renal effects may occur following subchronic inhalation exposure to cadmium and its compounds (McCluggage, 1991; INECAR, 2000; European Union, 2002; Young, 2005).

Lead is the most significant toxin of the heavy metals, and the inorganic forms are absorbed through ingestion by food and water, and inhalation (Ferner, 2001). A notably serious effect of lead toxicity is its teratogenic effect. Lead poisoning also causes inhibition of the synthesis of haemoglobin; dysfunctions in the kidneys, joints and reproductive systems, cardiovascular system and acute and chronic damage to the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) (Ogwuebgu and Muhanga, 2005). Other effects include damage to the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and urinary tract resulting in bloody urine, neurological disorder and can cause severe and permanent brain damage. While inorganic forms of lead, typically affect the CNS, PNS, GIT and other biosystems, organic forms predominantly affect the CNS (McCluggage, 1991; INECAR, 2000; Ferner, 2001; Lenntech, 2004). Lead affects children by leading to the poor development of the grey matter of the brain, thereby resulting in poor intelligence quotient (IQ) (Udedi, 2003). Its absorption in the body is enhanced by Ca and Zn deficiencies. Acute and chronic effects of lead result in psychosis.

Zinc has been reported to cause the same signs of illness as does lead, and can easily be mistakenly diagnosed as lead poisoning (McCluggage, 1991). Zinc is considered to be relatively non-toxic, especially if taken orally. However, excess amount can cause system dysfunctions that result in impairment of growth and reproduction (INECAR, 2000; Nolan, 2003). The clinical signs of zinc toxicosis have been reported as vomiting, diarrhea, bloody urine, icterus (yellow mucus membrane), liver failure, kidney failure and anemia (Fosmire, 1990). ...